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Why using ammonia in power generation is risky for the climate - Environmental Defense Fund

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<picture> <source srcset="https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/styles/2_1_732_366_focal_point/…; type="image/webp"/> <img src="https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/styles/2_1_732_366_focal_point/…; alt="Bill Nye holding a wrench in one hand and a plunger in the other" typeof="foaf:Image"/> </picture> </a></div></article></div></article><article><div class="article-title"> <a href="https://www.edf.org/article/fishing-future">The fishers battling climate change and overfishing in the fight to feed a hungry world</a></div><div><article><div> <a href="https://www.edf.org/article/fishing-future"&gt; <picture> <source srcset="https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/styles/2_1_732_366_focal_point/…; type="image/webp"/> <img src="https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/styles/2_1_732_366_focal_point/…; alt="Peruvian fisherman at sea" typeof="foaf:Image"/> </picture> </a></div></article></div></article></div></div></div></div><div class="topnav-drawer" aria-label="Our impact" id="our-impact"><div class="close-drawer-holder"> <button class="close-drawer" aria-controls="our-impact"> <span>Back</span> </button></div><div class="drawer-sections"><div class="topnav-drawer_pages"><div class="pages-overview"> <span class="primary-page"><a href="https://www.edf.org/impact">Our impact</a></span><div class="summary">For more than 50 years, we have been building innovative solutions to the biggest environmental challenges — from soil to space.</div></div><nav class="page-group"><ul><li class="primary"> <a href="https://impact2022.edf.org">2022 impact report</a></li></ul></nav><nav class="page-group"><ul><li class="primary"> <a href="https://www.edf.org/vision-2030">Vision 2030, our strategic plan</a></li></ul></nav></div><div class="topnav-drawer_articles"> <button class="close-button" aria-controls=""> <span>Close</span> </button> <span class="featured-title">Featured</span><div class="articles"><article><div class="article-title"> <a href="https://www.edf.org/methane-timeline">Slashing methane to slow global warming right now</a></div><div><article><div> <a href="https://www.edf.org/methane-timeline"&gt; 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<picture> <source srcset="https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/styles/2_1_732_366_focal_point/…; type="image/webp"/> <img src="https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/styles/2_1_732_366_focal_point/…; alt="A truck driving down a highway next to a beautiful open field." typeof="foaf:Image"/> </picture> </a></div></article></div></article><article><div class="article-title"> <a href="https://www.edf.org/content/vision-2030-our-strategic-plan">Our bold plan to stabilize the climate for a vital Earth</a></div><div><article><div> <a href="https://www.edf.org/content/vision-2030-our-strategic-plan"&gt; <picture> <source srcset="https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/styles/2_1_732_366_focal_point/…; type="image/webp"/> <img src="https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/styles/2_1_732_366_focal_point/…; alt="father and child in forest" typeof="foaf:Image"/> </picture> </a></div></article></div></article></div></div></div></div><div class="topnav-drawer" aria-label="Get involved" id="get-involved"><div class="close-drawer-holder"> <button class="close-drawer" aria-controls="get-involved"> <span>Back</span> </button></div><div class="drawer-sections"><div class="topnav-drawer_pages"><div class="pages-overview"> <span class="primary-page"><a href="https://www.edf.org/get-involved">Get involved</a></span><div class="summary">If we act now — together — there’s still time to build a future where people, the economy and the Earth can all thrive. 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Here’s what you should know.</a></div><div class="nav-next"></div></div><div id="post-22714" class="post-22714 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-uncategorized" ><div class="entry-meta"> <span class="meta-prep meta-prep-author">By </span><span class="author vcard"><a class="url fn" href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/author/admin/&quot; title="View all posts by EDF Blogs" rel="author">EDF Blogs</a></span> / <span class="author vcard"><a class="url fn" href="http://www.edf.org&quot; title="Bio">Bio</a></span> <span class="meta-sep meta-sep-entry-date"> / </span> <span class="meta-prep meta-prep-entry-date">Published: </span><span class="entry-date"><abbr class="published" title="2023-10-12T18:03:11-0400">October 12, 2023</abbr></span></div><div class="entry-content"><div style="margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px;" class="sharethis-inline-share-buttons" ></div><div id="attachment_22717" style="width: 810px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/wp-content/blogs.dir/38/files//800… aria-describedby="caption-attachment-22717" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" class="wp-image-22717 size-full" src="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/wp-content/blogs.dir/38/files//800…; alt="" width="800" height="533" srcset="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/wp-content/blogs.dir/38/files/800p… 800w, https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/wp-content/blogs.dir/38/files/800p… 300w, https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/wp-content/blogs.dir/38/files/800p… 768w" sizes="(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px" /></a><p id="caption-attachment-22717" class="wp-caption-text">Hirono thermal power plant in Hirono, Fukushima, Japan</p></div><p><em>By <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/sofia-esquivel-elizondo-3b55b5b7/?originalS… Esquivel-Elizondo</a> and <a href="https://www.edf.org/people/ilissa-ocko">Ilissa Ocko</a></em></p><p>Companies are announcing <a href="https://www.ammoniaenergy.org/articles/jera-targets-50-ammonia-coal-co-…; to use ammonia to decarbonize the power sector, because they view it as a carbon-free fuel that does not emit carbon dioxide and other carbon-based air pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, when combusted.</p><p>But there are <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/22/world/asia/japan-coal-renewable-ener… issues</a> with this strategy, primarily because it doesn’t take ammonia production — which often requires fossil fuels — into account. Depending on how it is made, using ammonia for power generation can <a href="https://www.transitionzero.org/insights/japans-toxic-narrative-on-ammon… </a>greenhouse gas emissions and be <a href="https://www.e3g.org/news/explained-why-ammonia-co-firing-in-coal-power-…; with temperature targets. And, even when production is clean, co-firing ammonia can be <a href="https://assets.bbhub.io/professional/sites/24/BNEF-Japans-Costly-Ammoni…;, <a href="https://apnews.com/article/teutopolis-effingham-illinois-truck-accident… </a>and <a href="https://energyandcleanair.org/publication/air-quality-implications-of-c…; air quality.</p><p><span id="more-22714"></span></p><p>But pursuing ammonia primarily to benefit the climate, when it could make the climate worse, seems to make little sense despite its other issues. So, we did the<strong> <a href="https://www.edf.org/Z6sC">math </a></strong>to see just how good or bad ammonia production can be for the climate, compared to using coal for power generation.</p> <span class='bctt-click-to-tweet'><span class='bctt-ctt-text'><a href='https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.edf.org%2Fener…; target='_blank'rel="noopener noreferrer">Why using ammonia in power generation is risky for the climate </a></span><a href='https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.edf.org%2Fener…; target='_blank' class='bctt-ctt-btn'rel="noopener noreferrer">Click To Tweet</a></span><p><strong>Warming impacts of ammonia production vs. coal</strong></p><p>To determine how much warming is possible, we looked at the near- and long-term warming impacts from emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen for seven different ammonia production pathways that covered the full range of dirtiest to cleanest and for best-case and worst-case methane and hydrogen emissions rates (see figure).</p><p>Warming impacts from ammonia production depend on the production method, the level of emissions and the <a href="https://edf.org/understanding-near-and-long-term-impacts-emissions?_gl=…; of interest because methane and hydrogen emissions (emitted from operational releases and leakage during the production process) are most powerful in the near-term.</p><p>&nbsp;</p><div id="attachment_22716" style="width: 1211px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/wp-content/blogs.dir/38/files//Scr… aria-describedby="caption-attachment-22716" decoding="async" class="wp-image-22716 size-full" src="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/wp-content/blogs.dir/38/files//Scr…; alt="" width="1201" height="810" srcset="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/wp-content/blogs.dir/38/files/Scre… 1201w, https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/wp-content/blogs.dir/38/files/Scre… 300w, https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/wp-content/blogs.dir/38/files/Scre… 1024w, https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/wp-content/blogs.dir/38/files/Scre… 768w" sizes="(max-width: 1201px) 100vw, 1201px" /></a><p id="caption-attachment-22716" class="wp-caption-text">* CH4 emissions from natural gas extraction, hydrogen production, and combustion. H2 emissions from hydrogen production (not from compression, liquefaction or distribution)</p></div><p>&nbsp;</p><p>When we compared the results to the warming impacts from carbon dioxide and methane emissions from a coal-fired power plant, we found that in the near-term, ammonia production can cause 50% more warming or 80% less warming, depending on the production method and emissions rates.</p><p>It is clearly not advisable to replace coal with ammonia produced from fossil fuels with high-carbon emissions. It is still risky, even if carbon capture technology is employed and captures 90% of carbon dioxide emissions from hydrogen and ammonia production, because more warming from the ammonia can occur in the near-term than the coal-fired power plant if methane emissions are even moderately high. And, in the long term, this method is still only 50% cleaner than coal with high methane emissions. But it can be 80% cleaner if methane emissions are kept to a minimum.</p><p>When renewable electricity is used for both hydrogen and ammonia production,  known as e-ammonia,  both carbon dioxide and methane emissions can be prevented, providing strong climate benefits from ammonia relative to coal over all timescales. And if hydrogen emissions across its entire value chain are minimized, there are even more climate benefits from ammonia.</p><p>But we must be careful not to <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/acacb5">take away</a> renewable energy needed to decarbonize the power grid. Because if we do, we will need to produce more electricity from coal and natural gas to support the power grid, again ending up in a situation where ammonia production is worse for the climate than coal-fired power plants, this time over all timescales.</p><p>So where are all these climate impacts coming from and how can we reduce them?</p><p><strong>All ammonia production emits climate-warming gases</strong></p><p>There are many ways to make ammonia, and every method emits climate-warming gases to varying degrees.</p><p>The conventional method to manufacture ammonia uses the Haber-Bosch process, which combines molecular hydrogen with atmospheric nitrogen and typically uses natural gas as the energy source to do so.  And because molecular hydrogen is not readily found in nature, we need to make that, too. Today’s hydrogen production relies almost entirely on natural gas or coal.</p><p>Therefore, conventional ammonia production using fossil-based hydrogen generates large amounts of carbon dioxide emissions and other carbon-based air quality pollutants. While carbon capture technologies can reduce carbon dioxide emissions, they won’t help reduce methane emissions.</p><p>Methane is the main component of natural gas and can be emitted from <a href="https://www.edf.org/climate/methane-studies">leakage, venting and flaring</a>. Methane is a <a href="https://www.edf.org/climate/methane-crucial-opportunity-climate-fight">…; greenhouse gas, particularly in the near-term, and can warm the climate at least 80 times more than carbon dioxide over a twenty-year period pound for pound. The extent of methane emissions can be low (less than 1%) or high (more than 3%) depending on the supply pathway.</p><p>There are, however, methods to make ammonia and hydrogen without using natural gas. We can use renewably-generated electricity, which would emit near-zero carbon dioxide and methane. But even with this method, we still need to worry about hydrogen.</p><p>Hydrogen itself is a <a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2023/08/16/known-unknown-current-h…; gas that also has <a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2023/07/19/new-research-reaffirms-…; near-term warming effects when emitted. In fact, the latest science suggests hydrogen can warm the climate at least 35 times more than carbon dioxide over a twenty-year period pound for pound when it chemically reacts in the atmosphere and subsequently causes other greenhouse gases, including methane, to increase. While <a href="https://www.edf.org/blog/2023/03/04/we-need-new-tech-understand-hydroge… one</a> knows how much hydrogen is emitted from existing infrastructure, estimates suggest it could be as high as <a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2023/08/16/known-unknown-current-h…; across the value chain.</p><p>Finally, ammonia itself can lead to increased greenhouse gas emissions because it is naturally converted into nitrous oxide in the environment. This powerful, long-lived greenhouse gas can warm the climate around 275 times more over a 100-year period than carbon dioxide pound for pound.</p><p><strong>The bottom line</strong></p><p>Overall, the use of ammonia in the power grid — either for co-firing with coal or to burn on its own — is not guaranteed to help us achieve climate goals. In fact, ammonia can be even worse for the climate in the near-term, especially if fossil feedstock and dirty energy sources are used to manufacture it. Any plan that considers its use needs to ensure that ammonia production is as clean as possible and complementary to other clean energy goals.</p><p>While ammonia’s climate benefits can be maximized if we are careful and thoughtful in its production and use, the additional concerns raised by experts — such as its <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31536283/">toxicity</a&gt; and generation of <a href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/05/16/national/science-health/ja… pollution — </a>call into question whether it should be pursued in the power sector at all. Clean ammonia and other alternative fuels provide the greatest climate and environmental benefits when used in applications that cannot be directly electrified with renewable energy.</p><p><em>For more information on the methodology and literature behind this analysis, click </em><a href="https://www.edf.org/Z6sC"><strong>here</strong></a><em&gt;.  </em></p><p><em>Research for this blog was done with support from Eriko Shrestha.</em></p><div class="wp_rp_wrap wp_rp_plain" id="wp_rp_first"><div class="wp_rp_content"><h3 class="related_post_title">Related Posts</h3><ul class="related_post wp_rp"><li data-position="0" data-poid="ex-in_22540" data-post-type="own_sourcefeed" ><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2023/07/19/new-research-reaffirms-…; class="wp_rp_title">New research reaffirms hydrogen’s impact on the climate, provides consensus</a></li><li data-position="1" data-poid="ex-in_22445" data-post-type="own_sourcefeed" ><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2023/05/09/lack-of-standards-could…; class="wp_rp_title">Lack of standards could undermine global hydrogen market before it gets started</a></li><li data-position="2" data-poid="ex-in_22606" data-post-type="own_sourcefeed" ><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2023/08/16/known-unknown-current-h…; class="wp_rp_title">Known Unknown: Current hydrogen leak estimates vary by up to 100-fold. 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cat-item-105770"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/market-resilience/">Market resilience</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-55717"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/methane-2/">Methane</a></… class="cat-item cat-item-113408"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/methane-regulatons/">Meth… regulatons</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-4866"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/mexico/">Mexico</a></li><… class="cat-item cat-item-654"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/military/">Military</a></… class="cat-item cat-item-693"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/natural-gas/">Natural Gas</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-113435"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/nescaum/">NESCAUM</a></li… class="cat-item cat-item-281"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/state/new-jersey/">New Jersey</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-68464"><a 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href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/natural-gas/produced-wate… water</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-100168"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/produced-water/">produced water</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-106466"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/puerto-rico/">Puerto Rico</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-105769"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/regional-grid/">Regional Grid</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-177"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/renewable-energy/">Renewa… Energy</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-105553"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/social-cost-of-carbon/">S… Cost of Carbon</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-203"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/solar-energy/">Solar Energy</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-84820"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/state/">State</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-181"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/state/texas/">Texas</a></… class="cat-item cat-item-72897"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/time-of-use/">Time of Use</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-27600"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/utilities/">Utility Business Models</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-68468"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/voltage-optimization/">Vo… Optimization</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-324"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/state/washington-dc/">Was…, DC</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-663"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/water/">Water</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-699"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/wind-energy/">Wind Energy</a></li><li class="cat-item cat-item-42183"><a href="https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/category/state/wyoming/">Wyoming</… 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href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2019/11/'>November 2019</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2019/10/'>October 2019</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2019/09/'>September 2019</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2019/08/'>August 2019</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2019/07/'>July 2019</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2019/06/'>June 2019</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2019/05/'>May 2019</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2019/04/'>April 2019</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2019/03/'>March 2019</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2019/02/'>February 2019</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2019/01/'>January 2019</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/12/'>December 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/11/'>November 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/10/'>October 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/09/'>September 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/08/'>August 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/07/'>July 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/06/'>June 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/05/'>May 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/04/'>April 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/03/'>March 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/02/'>February 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2018/01/'>January 2018</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/12/'>December 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/11/'>November 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/10/'>October 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/09/'>September 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/08/'>August 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/07/'>July 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/06/'>June 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/05/'>May 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/04/'>April 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/03/'>March 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/02/'>February 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2017/01/'>January 2017</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/12/'>December 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/11/'>November 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/10/'>October 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/09/'>September 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/08/'>August 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/07/'>July 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/06/'>June 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/05/'>May 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/04/'>April 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/03/'>March 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/02/'>February 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2016/01/'>January 2016</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2015/12/'>December 2015</a></li><li><a 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href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2014/11/'>November 2014</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2014/10/'>October 2014</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2014/09/'>September 2014</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2014/08/'>August 2014</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2014/07/'>July 2014</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2014/06/'>June 2014</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2014/05/'>May 2014</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2014/04/'>April 2014</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2014/03/'>March 2014</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2014/02/'>February 2014</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2014/01/'>January 2014</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/12/'>December 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/11/'>November 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/10/'>October 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/09/'>September 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/08/'>August 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/07/'>July 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/06/'>June 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/05/'>May 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/04/'>April 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/03/'>March 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/02/'>February 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2013/01/'>January 2013</a></li><li><a href='https://blogs.edf.org/energyexchange/2012/12/'>December 2012</a></li><li><a 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