Multi-hazards in Scandinavia: impacts and risks from compound heatwaves, droughts and wildfires

Aaheim, A., Amundsen, H., Dokken, T., and Wei, T.: Impacts and adaptation to climate change in European economies, Global Environmental Change, 22, 959–968, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.06.005, 2012. 

Aaheim, A., Orlov, A., Wei, T., and Glomsrød, S.: GRACE model and application, CICERO Report series 2018:1, CICERO, Oslo, https://pub.cicero.oslo.no/cicero-xmlui/handle/11250/2480843?locale-attribute=en (last access: 21 November 2025), 2018. 

AghaKouchak, A., Chiang, F., Huning, L. S., Love, C. A., Mallakpour, I., Mazdiyasni, O., Moftakhari, H., Papalexiou, S. M., Ragno, E., and Sadegh, M.: Climate extremes and compound hazards in a warming world, Annu. Rev. Earth. Pl. Sc., 48, 519–548, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-071719-055228, 2020. 

Aguiar, A., Chepeliev, M., Corong, E. L., McDougall, R., and Van Der Mensbrugghe, D.: The GTAP data base: Version 10, Journal of Global Economic Analysis, 4, 1–27, https://doi.org/10.21642/jgea.040101af, 2019. 

Asner, G. P., Brodrick, P. G., Anderson, C. B., Vaughn, N., Knapp, D. E., and Martin, R. E.: Progressive forest canopy water loss during the 2012–2015 California drought, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1523397113, 2015. 

Åström, C., Bjelkmar, P., Forsberg, B.: Attributing summer mortality to heat during 2018 heatwave in Sweden, Environmental Epidemiology, 3, 16–17, https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ee9.0000605788.56297.b5, 2019. 

Bakke, S. J., Ionita, M., and Tallaksen, L. M.: The 2018 northern European hydrological drought and its drivers in a historical perspective, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 24, 5621–5653, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-24-5621-2020, 2020. 

Beillouin, D., Schauberger, B., Bastos, A., Ciais, P., and Makowski, D.: Impact of extreme weather conditions on European crop production in 2018, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci., 375, 20190510, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0510, 2020. 

Berrang-Ford, L., Siders, A. R., Lesnikowski, A., Fischer, A. P., Callaghan, M. W., Haddaway, N. R., Mach, K. J., Araos, M., Shah, M. a. R., Wannewitz, M., Doshi, D., Leiter, T., Matavel, C., Musah-Surugu, J. I., Wong-Parodi, G., Antwi-Agyei, P., Ajibade, I., Chauhan, N., Kakenmaster, W., Grady, C., Chalastani, V., Jagannathan, K., Galappaththi, E., Sitati, A., Scarpa, G., Totin, E., Davis, D., Hamilton, N. C., Kirchhoff, C.J., Kumar, P., Pentz, B., Simpson, N. P., Theokritoff, E., Deryng, D., Reckien, D., Zavaleta-Cortijo, C., Ulibarri, N., Segnon, A. C, Khavhagali, V., Shang, Y., Zvogbo, L., Zommers, Z., Xu, J., Williams, P. A., Canosa, I. V., van Maanen, N., van Bavel, B., van Aalst, M., Turek-Hankins, L. L., Trivedi, H., Trisos, C. H., Thomas, A., Thakur, S., Templeman, S., Stringer, L. C., Sotnik, G., Sjostrom, K. D., Singh, C., Siña, M. Z., Shukla, R., Sardans, J., Salubi, E. A., Chalkasra, L. S. S., Ruiz-Díaz, R., Richards, C., Pokharel, P., Petzold, J., Penuelas, J., Avila, J. P., Murillo, J. B. P., Ouni, S., Niemann, J., Nielsen, M., New, M., Schwerdtle, P. N., Alverio, G. N., Mullin, C. A., Mullenite, J., Mosurska, A., Morecroft, M. D., Minx, J. C., Maskell, G., Nunbogu, A. M., Magnan, A. K., Lwasa, S., Lukas-Sithole, M., Lissner, T., Lilford, O., Koller, S. F., Jurjonas, M., Joe, W. T., Huynh, L. T. M., Hill, A., Hernandez, R. R., Hegde, G., Hawxwell, T., Harper, S., Harden, A., Haasnoot, M., Gilmore, E. A., Gichuki, L., Gatt, A., Garschagen, M., Ford, J. D., Forbes, A., Farrell, A. D., Enquist., C. A. F., Elliott, S., Duncan., E., Coughlan de Perez, E., Coggins, S., Chen, T., Campbell, D., Browne, K. E., Bowen, K. J., Biesbroek, R., Bhatt, I. D, Kerr, R. B., Barr, S. L., Baker, E., Austin, S. E., Arotoma-Rojas, I., Anderson, C., Ajaz, W., Agrawal, T., and Abu, T. Z. : A systematic global stocktake of evidence on human adaptation to climate change, Nat. Clim. Change, 11, 989–1000, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01170-y, 2021. 

Blauhut, V., Stoelzle, M., Ahopelto, L., Brunner, M. I., Teutschbein, C., Wendt, D. E., Akstinas, V., Bakke, S. J., Barker, L. J., Bartošová, L., Briede, A., Cammalleri, C., Kalin, K. C., De Stefano, L., Fendeková, M., Finger, D. C., Huysmans, M., Ivanov, M., Jaagus, J., Jakubínský, J., Krakovska, S., Laaha, G., Lakatos, M., Manevski, K., Neumann Andersen, M., Nikolova, N., Osuch, M., van Oel, P., Radeva, K., Romanowicz, R. J., Toth, E., Trnka, M., Urošev, M., Urquijo Reguera, J., Sauquet, E., Stevkov, A., Tallaksen, L. M., Trofimova, I., Van Loon, A. F., van Vliet, M. T. H., Vidal, J.-P., Wanders, N., Werner, M., Willems, P., and Živković, N.: Lessons from the 2018–2019 European droughts: a collective need for unifying drought risk management, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 22, 2201–2217, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-2201-2022, 2022. 

Brown, R. D. and Mote, P. W.: The response of northern hemisphere snow cover to a changing climate, Journal of Climate, 22, 2124–2145, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008jcli2665.1, 2008. 

Buras, A., Rammig, A., and Zang, C. S.: Quantifying impacts of the 2018 drought on European ecosystems in comparison to 2003, Biogeosciences, 17, 1655–1672, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-1655-2020, 2020. 

Cattiaux, J. and Ribes, A.: Defining single extreme weather events in a climate perspective, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 99, 1557–1568, https://doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-17-0281.1, 2018. 

Christensen, O. B., Kjellström, E., Dieterich, C., Gröger, M., and Meier, H. E. M.: Atmospheric regional climate projections for the Baltic Sea region until 2100, Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 133–157, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-133-2022, 2022. 

Copernicus Land Monitoring Service: 3.3.2 Bare rock, CORINE Land Cover nomenclature guidelines, https://land.copernicus.eu/content/corine-land-cover-nomenclature-guidelines/html/index-clc-332.html, last access: 21 November 2025. 

Couasnon, A., Eilander, D., Muis, S., Veldkamp, T. I. E., Haigh, I. D., Wahl, T., Winsemius, H. C., and Ward, P. J.: Measuring compound flood potential from river discharge and storm surge extremes at the global scale, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 489–504, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-489-2020, 2020. 

de Ruiter, M. C., Couasnon, A., Van Den Homberg, M. J. C., Daniell, J. E., Gill, J. C., and Ward, P. J.: Why we can no longer ignore consecutive disasters, Earth’s Future, 8, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019ef001425, 2020. 

de Ruiter, M. C., de Bruijn, J. A.,Englhardt, J., Daniell, J. E., deMoel, H., and Ward, P. J.: The synergies of structural disaster risk reduction measures: Comparing Floods and earthquakes, Earth’s Future, 9, e2020EF001531, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020EF001531, 2021. 

European Commission: Joint Research Centre, Cammalleri, C., Naumann, G., Mentaschi, L., Formetta, G., Forzieri, G., Gosling, S., Bisselink, B., De Roo, A., and Feyen, L.: Global warming and drought impacts in the EU: JRC PESETA IV project: Task 7, Publications Office, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/597045 (last access: 30 April 2025), 2020. 

European Environmental Agency (EEA): Forest fires in Europe, https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/indicators/forest-fires-in-europe?activeAccordion=546a7c35-9188-4d23-94ee-005d97c26f2b, last access: 21 November 2025, 2021. 

FAOSTAT: Forestry Production and Trade, https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FO (last access: 30 April 2025), 2024 

Fernandez-Anez, N., Krasovskiy, A., Müller, M., Vacik, H., Baetens, J., Hukić, E., Solomun, M. K., Atanassova, I., Glushkova, M., Bogunović, I., Fajković, H., Djuma, H., Boustras, G., Adámek, M., Devetter, M., Hrabalikova, M., Huska, D., Barroso, P. M., Vaverková, M. D., Zumr, D., Jõgiste, K., Metslaid, M., Koster, K., Köster, E., Pumpanen, J., Ribeiro-Kumara, C., Di Prima, S., Pastor, A., Rumpel, C., Seeger, M., Daliakopoulos, I., Daskalakou, E., Kotroulis, A., Papadopoulo, M. P., Stampoulidis, K., Xanthopoulos, G., Aszalós, R., Balázs, D., Kertész, M., Valkó, O., Finger, D. C., Thorsteinsson, T., Till, J., Bajocco, S., Gelsomino, A., Amodio, A. M., Novara, A., Salvati, L., Telesca, L., Ursino, N., Jansons, A., Kitenberga, M., Stivrins, N., Brazaitis, G., Marozas, V., Cojocaru, O., Gumeniuc, I., Sfecla, V., Imeson, A., Veraverbeke, S., Mikalsen, R. F., Koda, E., Osinski, P., Castro, A. C. M., Nunes, J. P., Oom, D., Vieira, D., Rusu, T., Bojović, S., Djordjevic, D., Popovic, Z., Protic, M., Sakan, S., Glasa, J., Kacikova, D., Lichner, L., Majlingova, A., Vido, J., Ferk, M., Tičar, J., Zorn, M., Zupanc, V., Hinojosa, M. B., Knicker, H., Lucas-Borja, M. E., Pausas, J., Prat-Guitart, N., Ubeda, X., Vilar, L., Destouni, G., Ghajarnia, N., Kalantari, Z., Seifollahi-Aghmiuni, S., Dindaroglu, T., Yakupoglu, T., Smith, T., Doerr, S., and Cerda, A. : Current wildland fire patterns and challenges in Europe: A synthesis of national perspectives. Air, Soil and Water Research, 14, 117862212110281, https://doi.org/10.1177/11786221211028185, 2021. 

Gjedrem, A. M. and Metallinou, M. M.: Wildland-urban interface fires in Norwegian coastal heathlands – Identifying risk reducing measures, Safety Science, 159, 106032, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2022.106032, 2022. 

Girardin, M. P., Ali, A. A., and Hély, C.: Wildfires in boreal ecosystems: past, present and some emerging trends, Int. J. Wildland Fire, 19, 991, https://doi.org/10.1071/wfv19n8_fo, 2010. 

Gustafsson, L., Berglind, M., Granström, A., Grelle, A., Isacsson, G., Kjellander, P., Larsson, S., Lindh, M., Pettersson, L. B., Strengbom, J., Stridh, B., Sävström, T., Thor, G., Wikars, L., and Mikusiński, G.: Rapid ecological response and intensified knowledge accumulation following a north European mega-fire, Scand. J. Forest. Res., 34, 234–253, https://doi.org/10.1080/02827581.2019.1603323, 2019. 

Hantson, S., Andela, N., Goulden, M. L., and Randerson, J. T.: Human-ignited fires result in more extreme fire behavior and ecosystem impacts, Nat. Commun., 13, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-30030-2, 2022. 

Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Biavati, G., Horanýi, A., Muñoz Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Rozum, I., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Dee, D., and Thépaut, J.-N.: ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1940 to present, Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS) [data set], https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.adbb2d47, 2023. 

IPCC: Summary for Policymakers, in: Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation, edited by: Field, C. B., Barros, V., Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Dokken, D. J., Ebi, K. L., Mastrandrea, M. D., Mach, K. J., Plattner, G.-K., Allen, S. K., Tignor, M., and Midgley, P. M.: A Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY, USA, 19 pp., https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/SREX_FD_SPM_final-2.pdf (last access: 21 November 2025), 2012. 

IPCC: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Pirani, A., Connors, S. L., Péan, C., Berger, S., Caud, N., Chen, Y., Goldfarb, L., Gomis, M. I., Huang, M., Leitzell, K., Lonnoy, E., Matthews, J. B. R., Maycock, T. K., Waterfield, T., Yelekçi, O., Yu, R., and Zhou, B., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, in press, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157896, 2021. 

Kueh, M. and Lin, C.: The 2018 summer heatwaves over northwestern Europe and its extended-range prediction, Sci. Rep.-UK, 10, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76181-4, 2020. 

Lawrence, D. M., Fisher, R. A., Koven, C. D., Oleson, K. W., Swenson, S. C., Bonan, G., Collier, N., Ghimire, B., van Kampenhout, L., Kennedy, D., Kluzek, E., Lawrence, P. J., Li, F., Li, H., Lombardozzi, D., Riley, W. J., Sacks, W. J., Shi, M., Vertenstein, M., Wieder, W. R., Xu, C., Ali, A. A., Badger, A. M., Bisht, G., van den Broeke, M., Brunke, M. A., Burns, S. P., Buzan, J., Clark, M., Craig, A., Dahlin, K., Drewniak, B., Fisher, J. B., Flanner, M., Fox, A. M., Gentine, P., Hoffman, F., Keppel-Aleks, G., Knox, R., Kumar, S., Lenaerts, J., Leung, L. R., Lipscomb, W. H., Lu, Y., Pandey, A., Pelletier, J. D., Perket, J., Randerson, J. T., Ricciuto, D. M., Sanderson, B. M., Slater, A., Subin, Z. M., Tang, J., Thomas, R. Q., Val Martin, M., and Zeng, X.: The Community Land Model Version 5: Description of new features, benchmarking, and impact of forcing uncertainty: Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 11, 4245–4287, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018ms001583, 2019. 

Log, T., Thuestad, G., Velle, L. G., Khattri, S. K., and Kleppe, G. : Unmanaged heathland – A fire risk in subzero temperatures?, Fire Safety J., 90, 62–71, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2017.04.017, 2017. 

Lindberg, H., Punttila, P., and Vanha-Majamaa, I.: The challenge of combining variable retention and prescribed burning in Finland, Ecological Processes, 9, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-019-0207-3, 2020. 

Lund, M. T., Nordling, K., Gjelsvik, A. B., and Samset, B. H.: The influence of variability on fire weather conditions in high latitude regions under present and future global warming, Environmental Research Communications, 5, 065016, https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/acdfad, 2023. 

Maracchi, G., Sirotenko, O. and Bindi, M.: Impacts of Present and Future Climate Variability on Agriculture and Forestry in the Temperate Regions, Europe. Climatic Change 70, 117–135, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-005-5939-7, 2005. 

Manuel, L., Chiziane, O., Mandhlate, G., Hartley, F., and Tostão, E.: Impact of climate change on the agriculture sector and household welfare in Mozambique: an analysis based on a dynamic computable general equilibrium model, Climatic Change, 167, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-03139-4, 2021. 

Matano, A., Van Loon, A., de Ruiter, M., Koehler, J., de Moel, H., and Ward, P.: Compound Drought-Flood Events in Fragile Contexts: Examples from the Horn of Africa, EGU General Assembly 2021, online, 19–30 Apr 2021, EGU21-10148, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu21-10148, 2021. 

Mazdiyasni, O. and AghaKouchak, A.: Substantial increase in concurrent droughts and heatwaves in the United States, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 11484–11489, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1422945112, 2015. 

Moftakhari, H., Schubert, J. E., AghaKouchak, A., Matthew, R. A., and Sanders, B. F.: Linking statistical and hydrodynamic modeling for compound flood hazard assessment in tidal channels and estuaries, Adv. Water Resour., 128, 28–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2019.04.009, 2019. 

Nagler, T., Schepsmeier, U., Stoeber, J., Brechmann, E., Graeler, B., and Erhardt, T.: VineCopula: Statistical Inference of Vine Copulas. R package version 2.6.0, https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=VineCopula (last access: 30 April 2025), 2024. 

National Report 2018: Report Nr. 74/2018, https://publikasjoner.nve.no/rapport/2018/rapport2018_74.pdf (last access: 21 November 2025), 2018. 

Natural Resources Institute Finland: Volumes and prices in industrial roundwood trade, https://www.luke.fi/en/statistics/volumes-and-prices-in-industrial-roundwood-trade (last access: 30 April 2025), 2025. 

Ntombela, C., Nyhodo, B., Ngqangweni, S., and Phahlane, H.: Economy-wide effects of drought on South African Agriculture: A computable general equilibrium (CGE) analysis, Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics, 9, 46–56, https://doi.org/10.5897/jdae2016.0769, 2017. 

NVE: Electricity disclosure 2018, https://www.nve.no/norwegian-energy-regulatory-authority/retail-market/electricity-disclosure-2018/ (last access: 18 November 2025), 2018. 

NVE: Magasinstatistikk, https://www.nve.no/energi/analyser-og-statistikk/magasinstatistikk/ (last access: 30 April 2025), 2024. 

Paprotny, D., Kreibich, H., Morales-Nápoles, O., Castellarin, A., Carisi, F., and Schröter, K.: Exposure and vulnerability estimation for modelling flood losses to commercial assets in Europe, Sci. Total Environ., 737, 140011, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140011, 2020. 

Raymond, C., Horton, R. M., Zscheischler, J., Martius, O., AghaKouchak, A., Balch, J., Bowen, S. G., Camargo, S. J., Hess, J., Kornhuber, K., Oppenheimer, M., Ruane, A. C., Wahl, T., and White, K.: Understanding and managing connected extreme events, Nat. Clim. Change, 10, 611–621, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-0790-4, 2020. 

Roudier, P., Andersson, J. C. M., Donnelly, C., Feyen, L., Greuell, W., and Ludwig, F.: Projections of future floods and hydrological droughts in Europe under a +2 °C global warming, Climatic Change, 135, 341–355, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-015-1570-4, 2015. 

Rousi, E., Fink, A. H., Andersen, L. S., Becker, F. N., Beobide-Arsuaga, G., Breil, M., Cozzi, G., Heinke, J., Jach, L., Niermann, D., Petrovic, D., Richling, A., Riebold, J., Steidl, S., Suarez-Gutierrez, L., Tradowsky, J. S., Coumou, D., Düsterhus, A., Ellsäßer, F., Fragkoulidis, G., Gliksman, D., Handorf, D., Haustein, K., Kornhuber, K., Kunstmann, H., Pinto, J. G., Warrach-Sagi, K., and Xoplaki, E.: The extremely hot and dry 2018 summer in central and northern Europe from a multi-faceted weather and climate perspective, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 23, 1699–1718, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-1699-2023, 2023. 

Schipper, E. L. F.: Maladaptation: When adaptation to climate change goes very wrong, One Earth, 3, 409–414, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.09.014, 2020. 

Schuhen, N., Iles, C. E., Cattiaux, J., and Sillmann, J.: Defining compound extreme events on objective spatiotemporal scales, in preparation, 2025. 

Scolobig, A., Komendantova, N., and Mignan, A.: Mainstreaming Multi-Risk Approaches into Policy, Geosciences, 7, 129, https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7040129, 2017. 

Sklar, A.: Fonctions de répartition à n dimensions et leurs marges, Publications de l’Institut de statistique de l’Université de Paris, 8, 229–231, 1959. 

Sleeter, B., Loveland, T. R., Domke, G. M., Herold, N., Wickham, J., and Wood, N. J.: Chapter 5: Land Cover and Land Use Change, edited by: Reidmiller, D. R., Avery, C. W., Easterling, D. R., Kunkel, K. E., Lewis, K. L. M., Maycock, T. K., and Stewart, B. C., Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: The Fourth National Climate Assessment, Washington, DC: U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2, 202–231, https://doi.org/10.7930/nca4.2018.ch5, 2018. 

Spensberger, C., Madonna, E., Boettcher, M., Grams, C. M., Papritz, L., Quinting, J. F., Röthlisberger, M., Sprenger, M., and Zschenderlein, P.: Dynamics of concurrent and sequential Central European and Scandinavian heatwaves, Q. J. R. Meteorol Soc., 146, 2998–3013, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3822, 2020. 

Solomon, R., Simane, B., and Zaitchik, B. F.: The impact of climate change on agriculture production in Ethiopia: Application of a Dynamic Computable general equilibrium model, American Journal of Climate Change, 10, 32–50, https://doi.org/10.4236/ajcc.2021.101003, 2021. 

Spinoni, J., Vogt, J. V., Naumann, G., Barbosa, P., and Dosio, A.: Will drought events become more frequent and severe in Europe?, Int. J. Clim. Change Str., 38, 1718–1736, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.5291, 2017. 

Statistics Finland: 13rb – Price of electricity by type of consumer, https://pxdata.stat.fi/PxWeb/pxweb/en/StatFin/StatFin__ehi/statfin_ehi_pxt_13rb.px/ (last access: 30 April 2025), 2025. 

Statistics Norway: National Accounts, https://www.ssb.no/en/nasjonalregnskap-og-konjunkturer/nasjonalregnskap/statistikk/nasjonalregnskap (last access: 30 April 2025), 2024a. 

Statistics Norway: Electricity prices, https://www.ssb.no/en/statbank/table/09364 (last access: 30 April 2025), 2024b. 

Statistics Norway: Commercial roundwood removal, https://www.ssb.no/en/statbank/table/07413 (last access: 30 April 2025), 2025. 

Statistics Sweden: Electricity prices and electricity contracts, https://www.statistikdatabasen.scb.se/pxweb/en/ssd/START__EN___EN0301/SSDManadElhandelpris/ (last access: 30 April 2025), 2025a.

Statistics Sweden: Statistical database: Consumer Price Index (CPI), https://www.scb.se/en/finding-statistics/statistics-by-subject-area/prices-and-economic-trends/price-statistics/consumer-price-index-cpi/ (last access: 30 April 2025), 2025b. 

Sutanto, S. J., Vitolo, C., Di Napoli, C., D’Andrea, M., and Van Lanen, H. A.: Heatwaves, droughts, and fires: Exploring compound and cascading dry hazards at the pan-European scale, Environ. Int., 134, 105276, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105276, 2020. 

Swedish Forest Agency: Statistical Database: Price on roundwood, https://pxweb.skogsstyrelsen.se/pxweb/en/Skogsstyrelsens%20statistikdatabas/?rxid=03eb67a3-87d7-486d-acce-92fc8082735d (last access: 18 November 2025), 2025. 

Teutschbein, C., Montano, B. Q., Todorović, A., and Grabs, T.: Streamflow droughts in Sweden: Spatiotemporal patterns emerging from six decades of observations, Journal of Hydrology Regional Studies, 42, 101171, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2022.101171, 2022. 

Tilloy, A., Malamud, B. D., Winter, H., and Joly-Laugel, A.: A review of quantification methodologies for multi-hazard interrelationships, Earth-Science Reviews, 196, 102881, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102881, 2019. 

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR): The Sendai Framework Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction, “Economic loss”, https://www.undrr.org/terminology/economic-loss (last access: 21 November 2025), 2017. 

United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR): Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, https://www.preventionweb.net/media/16176/download?startDownload=20251121, last access: 21 November 2025. 

Wahl, T., Jain, S., Bender, J., Meyers, S. D., and Luther, M. E.: Increasing risk of compound flooding from storm surge and rainfall for major US cities, Nat. Clim. Change, 5, 1093–1097, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2736, 2015. 

Ward, P. J., De Ruiter, M. C., Mård, J., Schröter, K., Van Loon, A., Veldkamp, T., Von Uexkull, N., Wanders, N., AghaKouchak, A., Arnbjerg-Nielsen, K., Capewell, L., Llasat, M. C., Day, R., Dewals, B., Di Baldassarre, G., Huning, L. S., Kreibich, H., Mazzoleni, M., Savelli, E., Teutschbein, C., van den Berg, H., van der Heijden, A., Vincken, J. M. R., Waterloo, M. J., and Wens, M.: The need to integrate flood and drought disaster risk reduction strategies, Water Security 11, 100070, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasec.2020.100070, 2020. 

Wilcke, R. A. I., Kjellström, E., Lin, C., Matei, D., Moberg, A., and Tyrlis, E.: The extremely warm summer of 2018 in Sweden – set in a historical context, Earth Syst. Dynam., 11, 1107–1121, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-11-1107-2020, 2020. 

World Bank: GDP (constant 2015 US$), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD (last access: 30 April 2025), 2025. 

Zscheischler, J. and Seneviratne, S. I. : Dependence of drivers affects risks associated with compound events, Sci. Adv., 3, e1700263, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700263, 2017.